Saturday, August 31, 2019

The contemporary American medical industry

The contemporary American medical industry feels the lack of those, who directly take care of the patients and satisfy most of the patients’ needs. The thing is that there are not enough nurses in the American hospitals and clinics due to the small salaries and the lack of perspectives for the career development the registered nurses have. Fortunately, in the last decade numerous shows appeared which create a positive image of nursing and encourage young people to choose it as their career. The ER was one of the first TV series which took this mission. There were several remarkable actors who played nurses in this show, but the most remembering is Julianne Margulies' character, Carol Hathaway, the head nurse in the Emergency Room. There also were several nurses on the second roles. Carol, the head nurse, was often shown at leading roles in the ER series. She was always on duty to save the patients and to assist the doctors. The ER displays Carol and other nurses working directly with the patients, fulfilling their professional chores. In this show nurses are shown providing nursing care to the patients, but it is also noted that sometimes these medical practitioners have to make the decisions and fulfil functions that are out of their professional competence. In scenes with physicians, where other nurses take part, those are the doctors who do most of the talking, but when Carol Hathaway is aired it is her who talks the most. She always has her own opinion about the issues discussed, and she is ready to stand for her viewpoint. In the ER lots of episodes with doctors and nurses are aired, and the who is deciding what help the patient actually needs depends on the personality of the doctor and of the nurse. Of course, usually it is the doctor who guides the process, but sometimes the nurse has to take this role. Let's, for example recall Dr. Carter’s first day in the ER as a doctor. He was really scared when he got his first patient, so Carol had to fulfil his chores. In the ER it was shown that both man and women are good in the nursing career. There were more female nurses of course, but the male ones also were present. The age of nurses shown in the show varies from twenty to sixty something; there both are the nursing certificate program recent graduates and the aged and experienced specialists. Most of the nurses in the ER are single. Carol Hathaway is portrayed as one of the strongest and most intelligent women in the whole series. She’s strong, ambitious and intelligent, capable and eager of learning something new. Carol’s character is even stronger than most of the doctors who work with her have; but she’s an exception, as most nurses are shown as less ambitious and, more light-headed. Most of them have time for activities besides their job, so they seem little touched by the problems that happen in the hospital. Thus the personality traits depicted in Julianna Margulies’ character, Carol are shown as abnormal for the person of her occupation. Carol Hathaway’s values change as she’s developing personally and professionally through the series. At the beginning serving people, saving them is the most significant for her, but with the time passing we notice that Carol becomes more and more ambitious, she longs for recognition and scholarship. In the same time the other nurses long for various things – most of them still feel that their work is of greatest importance and try to fulfill their chores as drudgingly as possible, but there are also some nurses who just want to sit and do nothing. Most nurses are shown as less intelligent and ambitious than the doctors are. In the ER the nurses aren’t portrayed in sexually demeaning terms, it's rather they are evaluated on the basis of their professionalism and excellence. Of course, most of the nurses depicted are attractive, and several romantic lines appear which involve nurses. It’s interesting that in the ER nursing is not portrayed as a fulfilling career. The nurses are complaining that the doctors underevaluate them, and in the middle of the series Carol decides to continue her education for to get the doctor’s diploma. Despite of that, the job of a nurse is shown as quite an interesting and exciting one, but in the same time very tiring and demanding. In the ER the profession of a nurse is shown as a deficit and exciting one, but it is also said that the doctors are superior to the nurses, and that the nurses have few opportunities for the career development. Reference â€Å"ER† (1994) TV-Series 1994-. Retrieved October 1, 2005 from the IMDB website. ; http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108757/ ; ER. About the Show. (2005). Retrieved October 1, 2005 from the NBC website. ; http://www.nbc.com/ER/about/index.htm

Friday, August 30, 2019

Effects of Television Commercial Repetition

Journal of Consumer Research, Inc. The Effects of Television Commercial Repetition on Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance Author(s): George E. Belch Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Jun. , 1982), pp. 56-65 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/2488937 . Accessed: 17/08/2012 06:48 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. . The University of Chicago Press and Journal of Consumer Research, Inc. are collaborating with JSTOR to digitiz e, preserve and extend access to Journal of Consumer Research. http://www. jstor. org The Television Commercial Repetition on Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance Effects ofGEORGEE. BELCH* The cognitiveeffects of advertisingrepetitionare examined by consideringthe impactof three levels of TV commercialexposure withina one-hour program. Attitudesand purchase intentionswere not affected by message repetition, although cognitive responses became more negative as exposure frequencyincreased. The relationship between cognitiveresponses and the message acceptance measures was relatively constantacross the three exposure levels. effects of repeated exposure to a persuasive communication have long been of interest to social psychologists and marketers.However, research concerning the effects of persuasive message repetition on cognitive processes has been limited in both social psychology and marketing. In social psychology, much of the repetition researchhas been performedin contexts thatdo not involve communication. For example, Zajonc's (1968) theory of mere exposure suggests that a person's attitude toward a stimulus is positively relatedto exposure frequency(an effect Zajonc attributedto the pleasantness associated with hearing an increasinglyfamiliar stimulus).However, mere exposure theory may have limited relevance to the attitudinal effects of persuasivemessage repetition,as this model applies primarilyto simple nonassociative stimuli, such as nonsense syllables or Turkish alphabet characters. Persuasive messages tend to be more complex stimuli and, in the case of advertisingmessages, the focus is generally on objects or ideas presentedin the message ratherthan on the advertisementitself. With the exception of a study by Cacioppo and Petty (1979), the cognitive and affective effects of repeated exposure to persuasive communicationshave generatedsurprisinglylittle researchin social psychology.Attemptsto determinethe effects of advertisingmessage repetition have appearedfrequentlyin the marketingliterature (Craig, Sternthal, and Leavitt 1976; Grass and Wal- The lace 1969; Mitchell and Olson 1977; Ray and Sawyer 1971; Sawyer 1973; Silk and Vavra 1974; Winter 1973). However, most researchinto the effects of advertisingrepetition has focused primarilyon outcome measuressuch as recall, attitude,and purchaseintention,ratherthanconsideringthe underlying processes that might shape and determine reaction to an advertisingmessage following multiple exposures.While knowledge of the repetition function for a persuasivemessage with respect to these outcome variables is important, the cognitive effects of message repetition must also be consideredif insight is to be gained in understandinga recipient'sreactionsto a message following multiple exposures. The purpose of this investigation is to study the effects of repeated exposure to a persuasive communication by examining the impact of television commercial repetition on cognitive processing.Cognit ive response measures (Greenwald 1968; Petty, Ostrom, and Brock 1981; Wright 1973) as well as traditionaloutcome measures such as recall, attitude, and purchase intention are used to examine the effects of multiple message exposures on recipients. This study also examines changes in the relationship of cognitive response mediators to measures of message acceptanceresultingfrom multipleexposuresto a commercial message. RELEVANT LITERATURE *George E. Belch is AssistantProfessorof Marketing,College of Business Administration,San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182.The author wishes to acknowledge the financial support provided by a doctoraldissertationgrant from the AmericanMarketingAssociation and by researchgrantsfrom the MarketingScience Instituteand the University of California, Los Angeles. Appreciationis also expressed to Rich Lutz and James Bettmanfor their comments on an earlierversion of this manuscript and to two anonymousreviewers for their insightful comments and re commendations. The effects of advertising repetition on outcome measures such as attitude and purchase intention have been examined in a numberof studies.Winter(1973) found that exposure to the commercials decreased the distance between attitudes toward the advertisedbrand and the ideal brand. However, diminishingreturnswere found, since the greatestamountof attitudechange occurredduringthe first two exposures. Also, exposure had a significanteffect only on individualsinitially unfamiliarwith the advertisedbrand 56 ? JOURNAL OF CONSUMERRESEARCH* Vol. 9 0 June 1982 EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL REPETITION and it was positively related to brand familiarity for the relatively new brandonly. Ginter(1974) found that either overall attitude change nor brand choice was affected by the numberof message exposures. Null effects of advertising repetition were also found in a study by Mitchell and Olson (1977): repetition of two types of print ads had no effect on belief strength, attitude, or purcha seintention. Several studies have examined the effects of multiple exposure in conjunction with varied advertising appeals. Ray and Sawyer (1971) found that repetitionof six soft-sell â€Å"nongrabber† advertisementsproduced increases in purchase intention, while intention was not increasedby repetition of hard-sell â€Å"grabber† ads.Similar results were found in-a study by Silk and Vavra (1974), who examined reactions to hard-sell and soft-sell radio commercials. Gorn and Goldberg (1980) examined the effects of repeated commercialexposure on eight- to ten-year-oldboys by varying the numberof commercials seen in the context of a half-hourprogram. Subjects viewed the commercials eitherone, three, or five times. However, some of the multiple-exposure condition subjects viewed the same commercialrepeatedly,while otherssaw a differentcommercial for the new brandeach time.Gorn and Goldbergfound that moderateexposure (threerepetitions)resultedin the highest level of brandpr eference, providedthat the same commercial was not seen each time. 57 Cacioppoand Petty (1980) tested the viability of the twostage cognitive response model in two other repetitionexperiments. In the first experiment, the cognitive response measureand a persistingmeasureof attitudechange (taken one week later) were affected in the curvilinear manner suggested by the two-factor model.In the second experiment, they predicted-and found-an interactionbetween exposure frequency and the nature of the argumentsused on a persisting attitudechange measure. Strong argumentbased messages became more persuasive with repetition; weak argumentmessages became less persuasivewith repetition; and novel messages became more, then less persuasive with repeatedexposure. Calder and Sternthal (1980) measured cognitive responses after commercials for two products;one product and was unfamiliarto the participants one was well known.They found that increased frequency of exposure led primarilyto more total thoughtsfor the unfamiliarproductand to an increasein negative thoughtsfor the well-knownproduct. TheoreticalAccounts of RepetitionEffects While several theoreticalexplanationshave been offered for repetitioneffects, the one that appearsto be most congenial for advertisingmessage repetition is some form of Berlyne's (1970) two-factor theory. Berlyne proposed a nonmonotonic inverted U-curve relationship between familiarity and liking.According to Berlyne, two separate and opposing psychological processes, positive habituation and tedium, operatesimultaneously. Positive habituationis similar to a reduction in response competition: exposure results in a reductionin arousaldue to uncertaintyand conflict and thus increases liking. Tedium also increases with exposure and results in a less pleasurablefeeling toward the stimulus. Berlyne suggests that the relative strengthof each factorvaries as a functionof exposureto the stimulus, with the habituationprocess having the greaterimpact on af fect initially, while tedium and disliking occur at higher exposure levels.Stimulus complexity and sequence heterogeneity slow the positive habituationprocess; thus tedium occurs at higher exposurelevels for complex, variedstimuli and at a relatively low frequency for simple, nonvaried stimuli. An extension of Berlyne's two-factor theory was proposed by Stang (1973, 1975), who argued that repeated to exposureprovidesmore opportunity learnaboutthe stimulus and that because this learning is rewarding, positive affect results. However, continued repetition beyond that necessary for initial learningleads to boredomor satiation, and repeated exposure ultimately produces negative affect toward the stimulus.A similar explanationfor repetitioneffects was proposed by Cacioppo and Petty's (1979) two-stage attitudemodification model. They argue that repetition of the message to providesrecipientswith more opportunity elaboratecognitively upon message content and to realize the favorable implic ationsand cogency of the argumentsused in the mes- Repetition and Cognitive Response McCullough and Ostrom(1974) examined the effects of repeatedexposure by having subjects view five similar ads that used the same basic appeal, but differed in the order and phrasing of the message arguments.Cognitive responses were measuredimmediatelyafter each exposure to the advertisements. They found that repetition resulted in a significantpositive effect on cognitive response activity, as subjectslisted more positive thoughtsand fewer negative thoughts with repeatedexposure. Cacioppo and Petty (1979) examined the effects of repeating messages that were either consistent with or contraryto recipients' initial attitudeon cognitive response activity. They found that agreementwith the message position increased and then decreased as exposure frequency increased.The cognitive response patternfollowed a similar curvilinear relationship as favorable thoughts showed an increase followed by a decrease, while counterarguments showed a significant decrease followed by an increase. Analysis of the cognitive response measures also revealed that the counter-attitudinal message evoked a greaternumber of topic-relevantthoughts and fewer neutralor irrelevant thoughts than the proattitudinal message. Cacioppo and Petty interpretedthese results in terms of a two-stage attitudemodificationprocess.Accordingto this model, repetitionof the message providesmore opportunity for cognitive elaborationupon the specific argumentsand realizationof theirfavorableimplications. At high exposure levels, however, tedium and/orreactancelead to an attack against the message by the receiver. 58 sage. However, in the high exposure conditions, it is very likely that tedium and/orreactancewill develop, leading to a decline in affect. Sawyer (1981) has suggested that Berlyne's two-factor theory is consistent with results concerning the repetition effects of advertising.Sawyer suggests that advertisements and othe r persuasive messages in contexts of obvious manipulative intent may elicit a majority of defensive responses-such as counterarguments and source derogations-at the outset. Once expressed, these defensive responses may dissipate and allow other, more objective evaluations and associations to occur. However, high exposure levels would ultimately result in satiation and negative reactionsto the message.The first question of interest is whetherthe inverted Ucurve predictions offered by Berlyne's two-factor theory and Cacioppo and Petty's two-stage attitude modification process model occur with multipleexposuresto a television commercial. Most of the studies extant have only examined outcome measures of effectiveness, providinglittle insight into the cognitive processing that underliesthese reactions. The studies that have utilized cognitive response measures have produceddivergent results, primarilybecause of the methodologicaland proceduraldifferences among them.It will be difficult t o arrive at any generalizationsconcerning the effects of persuasive message repetition on cognitive processing until more empiricalevidence is produced. The firsthypothesisto be tested in this studyconcernsthe effects of commercialmessage repetitionon cognitive responseand message acceptance: Hi: The favorabilityof message acceptanceand cognitive responses to a television commercial increases with moderate levels of exposure, then declines following high levels of exposure. THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH curring during the first few exposures to it.Krugman's (1972) notion of only three message exposures being sufficient to stimulatea buying decision is relevanthere. According to Krugman, the very first exposure (defined as actualattentionby the consumer)is dominatedby a â€Å"What is it? † type of response, whereby the message recipient attemptsto define and understandthe advertisingstimulus and to determine whether the message is of any use or interest. Krugmansuggests that much of the needed reduction in response competition occurs during this first exposure and that the second exposureevokes a more evaluative and personal â€Å"What of it? reaction, which determinesthe message's ultimate ability to persuade. If any meaningful response occurred earlier, the third exposure then acts mostly as a reminderto the recipient. The third exposure is also the beginning of disengagement or withdrawalof attentionfrom the task. Krugmansuggests that more than three exposures to a message essentially repeat earlier exposure effects. While no direct test of Krugman's conjecturehas been conducted, there is indirect evidence that is relevant.A study by Krugman(1968) of eye movement explorationof print ads indicated that peak effectiveness occurred after two or three exposures, while Grass and Wallace's (1969) work with CONPADD response indicatedthat from two to 1 four exposures are optimal. Otherevidence consistentwith Krugman's notion comes from a study by Goldberg and Gorn (1974). Also, Cacioppo and Petty's (1979) finding that topic-irrelevant ideation increased as exposure frequency increasedsuggests that the importantprocessing of a message takes place during initial exposures. This review suggests that the strengthof the relationship between cognitive responses and message cceptancemeasuresshould increasefrom low to moderateexposurelevels, since more detailed and evaluativeprocessing will occur as message recipients become familiar with the commercial message. At higher exposure levels, however, the tedium and/or reactance associated with message satiation would inhibit and/or interfere with subsequent informationprocessing activity and resultin a weakeningof the relationship between cognitive response and message acceptance. Cognitive processing at higher levels of exposure may consist ideationmore thanof relevantprocessing of topic-irrelevant and evaluation of the message arguments.The following predictionsconcerningthe effects of televi sion commercial message repetition on the relevancy and mediatingrole of cognitive responses will be examined: H2: The frequency of topic-irrelevant ideation increases as exposure to a television commercial increases. ‘CONPADD (ConjugatelyProgrammedAnalysis of Advertising)measures attentionto commercialsby using an operantconditioningprocedure whereby subjects operate either a foot or hand device in orderto receive the video and audio portionsof an advertisement.The subject'seffort thus becomes a measure of interest and attentionto the message in either the audio or video mode. Effects of Repetition on the MediatingRole of Cognitive Response Also of concern in this study are the effects of message repetitionon the mediating relationshipbetween cognitive responses and message acceptance. The issue of interest here is whethercognitive responseselicited afterhigh levels of message exposure mediate affective reactionto the message. Most studies of repetition effects have focused o n dependentmeasures, such as recall, attitude, and purchase intention.In these studies, the cumulativeeffects thatresult from repeatedexposure to the message may be capturedby using these â€Å"outcome† measures. However, this may not be the case for cognitive response measures. The detailed processingthat truly determinesthe message recipient'sreactionto the message may take place duringinitial exposure to the advertisement. Theorizingconsistent with this position has been offered by several researchers. For example, Leavitt (1974) has suggested a â€Å"strong effects† hypothesis, which suggests that the effectiveness of an ad depends on the events oc-EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL REPETITION H3: The strength of the relationshipbetween cognitive response and message acceptance measures increases with moderatelevels of exposure, then decreases at high levels of exposure. 59 thoughts. 3After completingthe cognitive responsetask, the subjectswere asked to complete a programeval uationform and a set of postmeasuresconcerning issues dealt with in the program. After completing these measures, subjectswere asked to respondto dependentmeasuresconcerningmessage acceptance and reception.Two dependentmeasures of message acceptancewere used in this study: attitudestoward using the new brandof toothpasteand purchaseintentionsfor the new brand. Subjects' attitudeswere measuredon four semantic differentialscales (good-bad, wise-foolish, favorable-unfavorable,beneficial-harmful). Subjects' responses to the four scales were averaged to arrive at the attitude score used in the analyses. Intentionto try the new brand of toothpaste was measuredon three semantic differential scales (likely-unlikely, probable-improbable, possibleimpossible). The purchase intention measure used in the analyses was calculated by averagingthe three scales.Two measuresof message receptionwere employed. An unaidedrecall measurewas takenby askingthe respondents to write down as much as they could rememberaboutwhat was said in the commercial. The recall score was then formed by counting the number of correct claims for the productlisted by the subject. The aided recall measureconsisted of six multiple-choicequestions aboutspecific points in the commercial. METHOD Overview The data for this study were collected as part of a laboratoryexperimentexaminingthe effects of advertisingmessage structure and repetition on cognitive response and message acceptance(Belch 1981). A 2 x 2 x 3 betweensubjectsdesign was used with type of message (comparative or noncomparative), message-sidedness (one- or twosided), and repetition(one, three, or five exposures) as the factors. Commercialsfor a new, fictitious brandof toothpaste were produced to serve as message stimuli for the study. The basic text for the four commercialsis shown in the Appendix. The data used to test the repetitionhypotheseswere compiled by combiningthe resultsfor the four treatment groups at each of the three exposure level s.There were no significant interactionsbetween the message structure factorsand exposure frequencyfor the dependentvariablesof interest. Subjects and Procedure The sample consisted of 260 persons recruitedfrom two churchgroups in the Los Angeles area. Data collection was spread over 10 evenings during a two-week period. Upon arrival at the research setting, the subjects were given a brief statementconcerningthe reasonfor theirpresenceand were then randomly assigned to one of the three experimental treatments being used during that session.One hundred subjects were assigned to both the one- and the three-exposureconditions, while 60 subjectswere assigned to the five-exposurecondition. The smaller cell size in the five-exposure condition was due to cost limitations in attaining additionalsubjects. were readto the subjectsinformingthem that Instructions they were participatingin a researchprojectevaluatingthe content of television programmingand that they would be asked to evaluate an episode of Quincy. The subjects were also told they would be asked questions about the commercials.The subjects completed the set of premeasures, which included demographicquestions, a television viewing profile, and premeasuresconcerning issues dealt with in the program;the one-hourprogramcontainingthe stimulus commercial(s) was then shown. Immediatelyafter the program ended, the subjects were read the cognitive response instructionsand were given two minutesto list their Categorizationof Cognitive Responses The cognitive response classificationscheme used in this study included three categories of thoughts: product/mesevaluations,and sage-relatedevaluations,repetition-related evaluairrelevant thoughts.The product/message-related tions included the cognitive response categories of counterargument, supportargument,source derogation,and curiosity thoughts as defined by Wright (1973), as well as the categories of simple dissaffirmationsand simple affirmations describedby Beaber (1975 ). An additionalcategory, source bolstering, was also used. This categorizationis the of positive counterpart source derogation. evaluations included any thought that Repetition-related addressedthe fact that the commercialwas seen more than one time in the program.The use of the repetition-related categorizationmay be useful in analyzing message recipients' reactionto multiple message exposures duringa short time period, such as a one-hourprogram. Other studies of repetitionandcognitive response(CacioppoandPetty 1979; Calderand Sternthal1980; McCulloughand Ostrom 1974) have not distinguishedthoughts reflecting reactions to the message per se from thoughtsthat might be relatedto multiple exposures to the same message.The final cognitive response category was the irrelevantcategory, which in3The cognitive response instructionsused in this study requested the subjects to list the thoughtsthat occurredto them while viewing the commercial about the product and their reactions during the commercial to what was said about the productby the advertiser. 2A complete descriptionof the method employed in this study is available elsewhere (Belch 1981). In the interest of brevity, only a summary will be presentedhere. 60 cluded those statements that did not reflect any relevant evaluation of the advertisingmessage or of the advertisement itself.A three-judgepanel was used to code the cognitive response protocols. The judges were given operationaldefinitions of the three response categories and were trainedin the applicationof these definitions until each had a good of understanding the coding scheme and coding task. The basis for the final rating of each cognition was a modal ratingof the threejudges. Interjudge reliabilities,calculated for each response category separately,rangedfrom 0. 69 to 0. 95. THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH FIGURE AND NEGATIVE MEANNUMBERS POSITIVE OF COGNITIVE RESPONSESFOR EACHLEVEL REPETITION OF 2 (1. 77) Total Negative 1. 5 (1. 32) (1. 04) Total Product/Message (1. 15) Related Negative 1 (. 96) Total Positive RESULTS The first hypothesis concerns the effects of commercial message repetitionon the message acceptancemeasuresof attitude and purchase intention and on the cognitive response measures. The mean attitudinal scores for the one-, three-, and five-exposureconditions were 3. 87, 4. 11, and 3. 77, while the mean purchaseintentionscores were 3. 24, 3. 60, and 3. 33. An analysis of variance performedon the message acceptancemeasures showed no significanteffect of repetition for either attitude or purchase intention, F (2,257) = 1. 6 and 0. 89, respectively. The means for the numberof favorableand unfavorable thoughtsgeneratedby subjectsin each of the threeexposure conditions are graphedin the Figure. 4 An analysis of variance revealed that the increase in the numberof negative thoughts across the three levels of repetitionis significant, F (2,257) = 9. 93, p < 0. 001. Pairwisecomparisons,using a Scheffe test, indicated that the difference in negative thoughts was not significant between the one- and threeexposureconditions, but was significantbetween the threeand five-exposure conditions (p < 0. 5). The Figure also shows that favorablethoughtsremainedrelatively constant across the three exposure levels. An analysis of variance for the favorable thoughts measure was nonsignificant,F (2,257) = 0. 69. The resultspresentedabove are not supportiveof the first hypothesis. The message acceptancemeasures(attitudeand purchase intention) did not show the inverted U-curve relationshippredictedby Berlyne's (1970) two-factortheory and Cacioppo and Petty's two-stage attitude modification model.The cognitive response results also fail to support the first hypothesis because negative thoughts increased across the three levels of exposure, while positive thoughts remainedrelatively constant. One possible explanationfor the increase in the number of negative thoughts across the three levels of repetitionis that multiple exposures to the message within the one-hour programmay have resultedin satiationandthe development ‘The favorable and unfavorable thoughts measures were derived by combining those cognitive responses that were positive and negative in valence, respectively.Thus, favorable thoughts representthe sum of all source bolstering, support arguments, and simple affirmations. Unfavorable thoughts representthe sum of all counterarguments, source derogations, simple disaffirmations,and repetition-related negative comments. l:; .v~~~~~~. 3 ( 53) (. 63) (. 63) I 0 I ,I 1 5 NUMBER OF EXPOSURES 3 of reactanceby the subjects. This negative reactionto message repetition could be expressed through negative repecontition-related thoughtson the partof multiple-exposure dition subjects.To determinewhether the increase in negative thoughts across the three levels of repetition was due to the repetition-relatedthoughts produced by the message recipients, these responses were omitted from t he composite of unfavorableresponses and the effect of repetitionon the number of product/message-related negative thoughts was examined. The means for the numberof negative product/message-relatedthoughtsare graphedin the Figure. A one-way analysis of variancerevealed that these differences in negative product/message-related thoughts were not significant, F (2,257) = 0. 5. Thus, the increase in negative thoughtsacross the three exposure levels was due primarily to the recipients' negative reactions to message repetition, ratherthan to negative evaluations of message content. Hypothesis two concerns the effect of multiple message exposure on the generation of topic-irrelevant thoughts. Topic-irrelevantthoughts were defined as those responses that do not represent an evaluation of the message arguments or of the advertisementitself. The mean numberof irrelevantthoughts for the one-, three-, and five-exposure levels was 0. 53, 0. 34 and 0. 3, respectively. The differences in irreleva ntthoughtsacross the threeexposurelevels were not significant, F (2. 257) = 1. 99. Contraryto the second hypothesis, it appearsthat message recipientsin the conditions did remainactive in attending multiple-exposure to the commercials, ratherthan tuning them out and producing cognitions that were unrelatedto the message. Relationshipof Cognitive Response to Message Acceptance To examine the relationshipof the cognitive responses generatedby subjects at the various exposure levels to attitude and purchase intention, several compensatoryEFFECTS OF TV COMMERCIALREPETITION TABLEI RELATIONSHIPOF COGNITIVERESPONSE AND MESSAGE RETENTION MEASURES TO MESSAGE ACCEPTANCE BY EXPOSURE LEVEL Single exposure Attitude Model 1 Purchase intention Three exposure Attitude Purchase intention Five exposure Attitude 61 Purchase intention Y2(SA+SB+SAf) – Y. (CA SD + SDf) + Model 2 .327b .323b .481 b ,345b .491 b .236c Y2(SA+SB+SAf+RRP) – Y. (CA. + + SDf+ RRN)8 SD Retention Aided recall Unaide d recall .327b .323b .468b ,339b .522b .258c . 021 . 086 .065 . 129 .014 . 010 .028 . 159 .001 . 121 .009 . 081 SAf = Simple Affirmations;SDf = Simple Disaffirmations; RRP = Repetition Related Positive; RRN = Repetition Related Negative; SA = Support Arguments; CA = Counterarguments; SD = Source Derogation; SB = Source Bolsters. bp < 0. 01 Cp < 0. 05 weighting models (cf. Wright 1973) were developed from the cognitive responses. These models, which are shown in Table 1, are based on an underlying assumption that message recipientsprocess cognitive cues in a mannersuch that opposing cues linearly balance each other. These compensatory models yield a measure of â€Å"net directionalimpact† of the cognitive mediators.Model 1 includes the product/message-related cognitive cues using the difference between the amountof positive ideation and negative ideation engaged in by the message recipients as the predictor of message acceptance. Model 2 adds the repetition-related thoug hts to the model and incorporatesall of the relevant cognitions into the cognitive response index. The relationships between the message retentionmeasures(unaidedand aided recall) and attitudeand purchaseintentionwere also examined. Simple regressions were performedusing each model as a predictorof the message acceptancemeasures.The results of these analyses, which were performedseparatelyfor each exposurelevel, are shown in Table 1. This table shows that the cognitive response models are significantly related to the message acceptancemeasuresacross all three exposure conditions. However, the aided and unaided recall scores are not relatedto either attitudeor purchaseintentionat any of the exposure levels. As can be seen in Table 1, the relationshipof the cognitive response models to the attitudinalmeasure of message acceptanceis strongerin the three-exposurecondition than in the single-exposurecondition, as predicated.However, the differences in these correlationsfor the two exposu re levels are not statistically significant (t = 1. 32, p < 0. 10). 5 Table 1 also reveals that the magnitudeof the relationshipbetween the cognitive response models and attitude does not show the hypothesizeddecline between the 5Comparison these correlationcoefficients was made using the folof lowing test statistic: three- and five-exposure conditions, but remainsrelatively constant. The relationshipbetween the cognitive response models and purchase intention across the three exposure levels is also shown in Table 1.The correlationsdo not show the predicted increase between the one- and three-exposure conditions. There is an attenuationin the correlationsbetween the three- and five-exposure conditions; however, these differences are not significant(t < 1). These results fail to supportthe hypothesizedchanges in the relationshipbetween cognitive and message acceptance across the three exposure levels. Table 1 also indicatesthat differences exist in the relationshipsbetween cog nitive response and the attitudinalmeasure of message acceptance and between cognitive response and the purchaseintention measure in the multiple-exposureconditions.There is an attenuationin the correlationof cognitive response to message acceptance when purchase intention, ratherthan attitude, is the message acceptance criterion. Wright (1973) found a similar attenuationbetween cognitive response and a behavioralintentionversus an attitudinal measureof message acceptance. The attenuationfound in this study may be due to the fact thatbehavioralpatternsfor a productsuch as toothpasteare likely to be well developed. Thus, favorable or unfavorablecognitive reactionsto the message may be related to affective position toward the new brand, but would not necessarily impact on intentionto buy the new brand.I + Vm 1 Vm I/ ~1 lNm-3 l/2 In – l/2 In 1 I + Vf 1- Vf 3 t= Nf- where Vm and Vf denote the correlationcoefficients for each group and Nm and Nf denote the size of each group. This statistic makes it possible to test the equalityof two correlationcoefficients using a t test (Kleinbaum and Kupper 1978). 62 THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF RESEARCH sage argumentsand then developing an attitudetowardthe new brand, but ratherwere using the retainedargumentsto support a preformed affective position.This explanation may be particularlyplausible in a low-involvement advertising situation(which one might argue was the case in this study) where global affect, rather than attribute specific information,providesthe basis for consumerevaluationand decision making (cf. Olshavskyand Granbois1979; Wright 1976; Zajonc 1980). The two perspectives regarding the mediating role of cognitive response suggest differentcausal patternsamong the message acceptance measures and cognitive responses following multiple exposure to a message.The first explanation argues for the traditionalmediatingrole of cognitive responses, whereby the flow of causal effects originates with repetitionand moves th roughcognitive responses that mediateattitude,which in turnmediatespurchaseintention. The competingexplanationsuggests that the flow of effects originates with repetition and moves successively through attitude and purchase intention, which in turn influences cognitive response. This causal flow suggests thatcognitive in responses, particularly the multiple-exposure conditions, are the result of preformedaffect towardthe new brand.To examine the two competing explanationsof the relationships among the variables, a testing of alternative model forms was undertaken. The tenabilityof each causal model was tested by attemptingto reproducethe original correlationmatrix among the four relevant variables (repetition, cognitive responses, attitude, and purchase intention). Examination of the reproducibility of the original correlationmatrix provides evidence in supportof a proposed model configuration also allows for a comparison and of other alternativeflows.A techniquedeveloped by Simon ( 1957) for testing simple linear flows of causation was used to examine the relationshipamong these variables. This techniquefor testing a proposed causal flow was used by Lutz (1978) in examining the relationshipsamong beliefs, attitude, and behavioral intention-a problem similar to the presentone. Simon developed a precise set of predictionsfor the magnitudeof correlationbetween nonadjacent pairsof variables in the hypothesized flow of causation, based on observed correlationsbetween adjacent pairs of variables.Specifically, the predicted correlationbetween any two nonadjacent variables is equal to the product of all the pairwise correlations between adjacent intervening variables. For example, in the traditionalcognitive response causal sequence (repetition– cognitive response-> attitude-> intention), Simon's model would predictthat the simple correlationbetween repetitionand intentionwould be equal to the simple correlationsof repetitionand cognitive response multipl ied by the simple correlationof cognitive response and attitudemultipliedby the simple correlationof attitude and intention.Comparisonof predicted and actual correlations provides a measure of â€Å"fit† for the theoreticalexplanations being applied to the data. While this mode of analysis cannot prove that a particularcausal sequence is correct, it is useful for testing competing explanations. Cognitive Responses: Mediatorsor Productsof Message Acceptance? A basic assumptionin using the cognitive response approachto studying communicationeffects is that the spontaneous thoughts generated by the message recipients causally mediate affective reactions to a persuasive message.The assumptionthat cognitive responses precede and influencethe formationof attitudesand intentionshas been made in most cognitive response studies and has been directly tested in several investigations (Cacioppo and Petty 1979; Osterhouse and Brock 1970; Petty and Cacioppo 1977). This study assumed that c ognitive response cues generated by the message recipients mediate the effect of repetition on message acceptance,since subjectsin the multipleexposure conditions had the opportunity to become acquainted with the message arguments and had plenty of time to elaborate cognitively upon them. Thus, the responses generatedby the multiple-exposurecondition subjects would be based on the cogency of the message arguments and their reactionsto these arguments,ratherthan on a general, overall impressionof the productand/orcommercial. Evidence in supportof this position is offered by the strong relationshipbetween cognitive response and attitude in the multiple-exposureconditions. There is, however, an alternativehypothesis to the argument that cognitive responses mediate the effect of repetition on message acceptance.It may be that the thoughts producedby the message recipientsare not really mediating acceptanceof the message, but ratherare a reflectionof the recipient's affective position to ward the product and/or commercial. Several studies (Tesser and Conlee 1975; Tesser and Cowan 1977) have shown that the opportunityfor thought leads to a polarizationof attitudeswhereby affective position becomes more extreme in the initial direction. onditionsmay Message recipientsin the multiple-exposure have formed an attitudetowardthe new brandafter one or two exposures, while further exposure to and reflection upon the message argumentsmay have led to attitudepolarization. Thus, the cognitive responsesproducedby these subjects may have been a reflection of a previously developed and polarized attitude;ratherthan mediatingmessage acceptance,the recipients'responses may thus have offered cognitive justification for their affective position.This alternativeperspective suggests that the multipleexposure condition subjects were not processing the mes- 6Thereis evidence that the message argumentswere retainedmore in the multiple-exposureconditions than in the single-exposurecondition s. The cell means for the unaidedrecall measurewere 1. 70, 2. 33, and 2. 48, while the means for the aided recall measure were 2. 22, 2. 74, and 3. 20. An analysis of varianceperformedon the receptionscores showed thatthe effect of repetitionwas significant for both measures, F (2. 257) = 7. 01 and 11. 25, respectively (p < 0. 1). Pairwise comparisons of the cell means, using the Scheffe test, indicatedthat both recall measuresshowed a significant increase between the one- and three-exposureconditions (p < 0. 05), but not between the three- and five-exposurelevels. REPETITION EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL TABLE 2 INTERCORRELATIONSOF VARIABLES IN HYPOTHESIZED FLOW OF EFFECTS Cognitive response – 63 TABLE 3 PREDICTIONS AND DEGREES OF FIT FOR RELATIONSHIPS AMONG NONADJACENT CAUSAL VARIABLES Degrees of fit Actual Expected Variable Repetition – Attitude – . 013 . 429 Purchase intention . 31 R–CR->Att->PI' 1. Repetition 2. Cognitive response 3. Attitude 4 . Purchase intention .022 .310 . 692 13 12r23 -. 013 rl2r23r,. r24= r23r, r14= .031 . 310 R–Att->PIl-CR -. 009 [(-. 022)(. 429)] – . 006 [(-. 022)(. 429)(. 692)] . 297 [(. 429)(. 692)] In performingthis analysis, the cognitive response variable was operationalizedby using the compensatoryindex derived from model 1 (Table 1). Repetition was assigned a value of 1, 3, or 5, dependingupon exposurelevel. Table 2 shows the observed simple correlationsamong the four variablesof interest.Each variableis numberedto facilitate of interpretation Table 3, which shows the actual and expected correlations among nonadjacentpairs of variables for the two competing causal flows previously described. To compare the degrees of fit of the two models, a total discrepancy score was computed from the correlations shown in Table 3. Total discrepancy was operationalized as the sum of the absolute differences between predicted and actual correlations. Table 3 shows that the degree of fit was best for the traditional model, in which cognitive responses mediate message acceptance.The total discrepancyfor this model was 0. 055, while the total discrepancy for the competing model was 0. 278. In additionto the two models previously considered, alternativeorderingsof the cognitive response and message acceptance measures following message repetition were also examined. However, none of these models performedas well as the basic cognitive-responses-as-mediatorsmodel. 13 r12r23 r14 =r2r23r34 r24 =r23r34 .031 -. 022 . 429 -. 015 [(-. 022)(. 692)] -. 005 [(-. 022)(. 692)(. 310)] . 214 [(. 692)(. 310)] intention aRepetitionrCognitive response-Attitude-oPurchaseDISCUSSION The results of this study are not supportiveof Berlyne's (1970) two-factor theoretical account of repetition effects nor of Cacioppo and Petty's (1979) two-stage attitudemodification process model. Neither attitudesnor purchaseintentions were affected by the level of advertisingexposure. This is consistent with t he results of otherrepetitionstudies that have failed to find a significant main effect for repetition on these outcome measures. The patternof results found for the cognitive response measures was also inconsistent with theoretical expectations.The number of negative product/message-related thoughtsdid not decline between the one- and three-exposure conditions, as had been predicted. The negative thoughtsvariablealso failed to parallelthe resultsfound for the attitude and purchase intention measures for the oneand three-exposureconditions. This inconsistency, which was also found by Calder and Sternthal(1980) and, to a lesser degree, by-Cacioppoand Petty (1980), suggests that there is not always a direct correspondencebetween cognitive response and outcome evaluations.The second stage of two-factortheory and the two-stage attitudemodificationprocess, which predicts a decrease in affect and an increase in negative thoughts due to tedium and reactance, was partially supported. Neithe r attitudes nor purchase intentions showed a significant decline between the three- and five-exposure conditions. However, the significant increase in negative repetition-related thoughts between the three- and five-exposure conditions suggests that reactance to the multiple message exposures did become more pronouncedin the high exposure condition.The significant increase in repetition-related thoughts across the three exposure levels is not surprising,but it is noteworthy. Past studies of repetition and cognitive response have not directlyrecognized the possibility thatrepetition-relatedcognitions might occur as a result of excessive exposure to a message; instead, they have assumed that the recipient's reaction to message repetition impacts on more traditionalcognitive response variables, such as or counterarguments favorablemessage-relatedthoughts. From a strategicperspective, these findings have implications for the scheduling of adverising messages, particularly over short tim e periods. While the exposure levels used in this study were high for a one-hour time period, they are not totally inconsistent with actual media schedvalue uling practices. The results suggest that no short-term is gained from addedexposures. Media schedulesthatresult in high levels of message exposure in a limited time period run the risk of alienatingthe viewer and may not represent Althoughcognitive response measures were not taken in the study by Gom and Goldberg (1980), they did find negative repetition-related reactions to be commonplace: â€Å"Observationof the children suggested that when exposed to the same commercial three or five times, they became annoyedby the repetitions. Remarkssuch as â€Å"Oh no, not again† or â€Å"not anotherone† were common †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ . . . (p. 424). † 64 the most effective expenditureof media budgets.However, ratherthan focusing only on immediate postexposure reactions, it would be helpful to consider the effects of mul tiple message exposure over longer time periods, in order to determine the persistence of positive or negative responses. Crandall,Harrison,and Zajonc (1975) found that the negative effects of tediumfrom repeatedexposuresmay be only transitory,whereasthe positive effect is permanent. Stang (1974) also found satiationeffects to be short-lived: a small measurementdelay was more likely to show positive effects of exposure than an immediate measurement.Research similar to that of Cacioppo and Petty (1980), which uses delayed measures of cognitive response and the attitudechange, is needed to fully understand effects of message repetition. The use of delayed response measures in examining repetition effects is discussed in detail by Sawyer and Ward (1977). The results of this study are supportiveof other investigations suggesting that cognitive responses mediate postmessage attitudesand purchase intentions. Moreover, this studyoffers furthersupportfor the viabilityof using thought verbal ization data in studying communication effects.While the cognitive response models were capable of explaining a significantamountof the variancein attitudeand purchase intention, the aided and unaided recall measures did not show a significant relationshipto message acceptance despite the increase in recall scores across the three levels of exposure. These findingsare consistentwith other studies which have found that stimulus learningis not necessarily related to affective reactions (Cacioppo and Petty 1979; Greenwald1968; Wright19,73).These resultssupport the argumentthat cognitive cues generatedby the message recipient, ratherthan message arguments, are the primary mediatorsof message acceptance. [ReceivedMay 1981. Revised November 1981. ]RESEARCH THEJOURNAL CONSUMER OF REFERENCES Beaber, R. J. (1975), â€Å"The General Characteristicsof Covert Resistance Mechanisms and Their Relationship to Attitude Change and SpeakerPerception,† Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,Department of Psychology, Universityof Southern California. Belch, George E. 1981), â€Å"An Examinationof Comparativeand Noncomparative Television Commercials: The Effects of Claim Variation and Repetition on Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance,† Journal of MarketingResearch, 18 (August): 333-49. Berlyne, D. E. (1970), â€Å"Novelty, Complexity, and Hedonic Value,† Perception and Psychophysics, 8: 279-86. Cacioppo, John T. , and Petty, Richard(1979), â€Å"Effects of Message Repetition and Position on Cognitive Response, Recall and Persuasion,† Journal of Personality and Social Psy97-109. hology, 37 (January): and Petty, Richard, (1980), â€Å"Persuasiveness of Communicationsis Affected by ExposureFrequencyand Message Quality: A Theoreticaland EmpiricalAnalysis of Persisting Attitude Change,† in Current Issues and Research in Advertising, eds. J. H. Leigh and C. R. Martin,Jr. , Ann Arbor: Division of Research, GraduateSchool of Business Administration, Univer sity of Michigan. Calder, Bobby J. and Sternthal,Brian (1980), â€Å"Television ComProcessingView, † Journal mercialWearout:An Information of MarketingResearch, 17 (May): 173-186. Craig, C.Samuel, Sternthal, Brian, and Levitt, Clark (1976), Analysis,† Journal â€Å"AdvertisingWearout:An Experimental of MarketingResearch: 13 (November):365-72. Crandall, R. , Harrison, A. A. , and Zajonc, Robert B. (1975), â€Å"The Permanence of the Positive and Negative Effects of StimulusExposure:A Sleeper Effect? ,† Unpublishedmanuscript, University of SouthernCalifornia. Ginter, James L. (1974), â€Å"An ExperimentalInvestigationof AttitudeChange and Choice of a New Brand,† Journal of Mar30-7. keting Research, 11 (February): Goldberg, Marvin E. , and Gorn, Gerald J. 1974), â€Å"Children's Reactions to Television Advertising: An ExperimentalApproach,† Journal of Consumer Research, 1 (September): 69-75. Gorn, Gerald G. , and Goldberg, Marvin E. (1980), â€Å"Chi ldren's Responses to RepetitiveTV Commercials,† Journal of Consumer Research, 6 (March):421-25. Grass, R. C. , and Wallace, Wallace H. (1969), â€Å"SatiationEffects of T. V. Commercials,†Journal ofAdvertisingResearch, 19: 47-57. Greenwald, A. G. (1968), â€Å"Cognitive Learning, Cognitive Response to Persuasionand AttitudeChange,† in Psychological Foundations of Attitudes, eds.A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, and T. M. Ostrom, New York: Academic Press. Kleinbaum,David G. , and Kupper,LawrenceL. (1978), Applied Methods,North RegressionAnalysis and OtherMultivariable Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. Krugman,HerbertE. (1962), â€Å"An Applicationof LearningTheory to TV Copy Testing,† Public Opinion Quarterly, 26: 626-34. (1965), â€Å"The Impactof Television Advertising:Learning Without Involvement,† Public Opinion Quarterly, 30: 583-96. (1968), â€Å"Processes Underlying Exposure to Advertising,† AmericanPsychologist, 23: 11-14.APPENDIX Sample Text o f CommercialMessages Announcingan importantadvance in the science of dental hygiene, new Shield toothpaste with fluorigard. Fluorigard is a new stannous fluoride substance developed by a biodental team at a leading university. Clinical tests by the American Dental Association have found new Shield to be more effective than Crest, the leading fluoride toothpaste, in reducing cavities. These tests showed that Shield, with its patented fluorigardformula, has significantly higher levels of fluoride activity than Crest.This means that Shield spreads faster while you brush, actually penetratingand cleaning in between your teeth, where most cavities occur. And Shield's fluorigard formulawas also preferredin taste tests. Remember, see your dentist regularly and brush often with new Shield, the only toothpastethat gives your teeth the protectionof fluorigard. REPETITION EFFECTSOF TV COMMERCIAL (1972), â€Å"Why Three ExposuresMay Be Enough,† Journal of AdvertisingResearch, 12: 11-14. Leavitt, Clark (1974), â€Å"Strong Versus Weak Effects of Mass Communications:Two Alternative Hypotheses,† in Buyerl ConsumerInformationProcessing, eds.G. D. Hughes and M. L. Ray, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Lutz, RichardJ. (1978), â€Å"A FurtherExaminationof Two Laboratory Tests of the Extended Fishbein Attitude Model: Rejoinder,† Journal of Consumer Research, 4 (March): 266-271. McCullough, J. L. , and Ostrom, Thomas (1974), â€Å"Repetitionof Highly Similar Messages and AttitudeChange,† Journal of Applied Psychology, 59 (June): 395-7. Mitchell, Andrew, andOlson, JerryC. (1977), â€Å"Cognitive Effects of Advertising Repetition,† in Advances in ConsumerResearch, Vol. 4, ed. W. D.Perreault,Atlanta, GA: Association for ConsumerResearch, pp. 213-20. Olshavsky, Richard W. , and Granbois, Donald (1979), â€Å"Consumer Decision Making-Fact or Fiction,† Journal of ConsumerResearch, 7: 331-33. Osterhouse, R. A. , and Brock, Tim othy C. (1970), â€Å"Distraction Increases Yielding to Propagandaby Inhibiting Counterarguing,† Journal of Personality and Oocial Psychology, 15: 344-358. Petty, RichardE. , and Cacioppo, JohnT. (1977), â€Å"Forewarning, Cognitive Responding, and Resistanceto Persuasion,†Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35: 645-55.Ostrom, Thomas M. , and Brock, Timothy C. (1981), CognitiveResponses in Persuasion, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ray, Michael L. , and Sawyer, Alan G. (1971), â€Å"A Laboratory Technique for Estimating the Repetition Function for Advertising Media Models,† Journal of MarketingResearch, 8: 20-29. Sawyer, Alan G. (1973), â€Å"The Effects of Repetition of Refutational and SupportiveAdvertisingAppeals,† Journal of Mar3-33. ketingResearch, 10 (February): (1977), â€Å"Repetition and Affect: Recent Empirical andTheoreticalDevelopment,† in Foundationsof Consumerand Industrial Buying Behavior, eds. A. G. Woodside, J. N. Sheth, and P. D. Bennett, New York: AmericanElsevier. (1981), â€Å"Repetition, Cognitive Response and Persuasion,† in Cognitive Responses in Persuasion, eds. R. E. Petty, T. Ostrom, and T. Brock, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,pp. 237-61. 65 , and Ward, Scott (1979), â€Å"Carry-OverEffects in Advertising Communication,† in Research in Marketing, Vol. II, ed. J. N. Sheth, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp. 259-314. Silk, Alvin J. , and Vavra, J. G. 1974), â€Å"The Influence of Advertising's Affective Qualities on Consumer-Response,† in Processing, eds. G. D. Hughes Information Buyer/Consumer and M. L. Ray, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, pp. 157-86. Simon, H. A. (1957), Models of Man, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Stang, D. J. (1973), â€Å"Six Theories of Repeated Exposure and Affect,† Manuscript#482, JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 3: 126. (1975), â€Å"The Effects of Mere Exposureon Learningand Affect,† Journal of Personality a nd Social Psychology, 31: 7-13.Tesser, A. , and Conlee, M. C. (1975), â€Å"Some Effects of Time and Thought on Attitude Polarization,† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31: 262-70. , and Cowan, C. L. (1977), â€Å"Some Attitudinaland Cognitive Consequences of Thought,† Journal of Research in Personality, 11: 216-26. Winer, B. J. (1971), Statistical Principles in ExperimentalDesign, New York: McGraw-HillBook Co. Winter, FredrickW. (1973), â€Å"A LaboratoryExperimentof Individual AttitudeResponse to AdvertisingExposure,† Journal of MarketingResearch, 10 (May): 130-40. Wright, Peter L. 1973), â€Å"The Cognitive Processes Mediating Research, Acceptanceof Advertising,† Journal of Marketing 53-67. 10 (February): (1975), â€Å"Factors Affecting Cognitive Resistance to Advertising,† Journal of ConsumerResearch, 2 (June): 1-10. (1976), â€Å"An Adaptive Consumer'sView of Attitudesand Other Choice Mechanisms, as Viewed by an Equally Adaptive Advertiser,† in AttitudeResearch at Bay, eds. Deborah Johnson and William D. Wells, Chicago American Marketing Association, pp. 113-31. (1980), â€Å"Message-Evoked Thoughts: Persuasion ResearchUsing ThoughtVerbalizations,†Journal of Consumer Research, 2

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Why is money supply not under the tight control of central banks Essay - 3

Why is money supply not under the tight control of central banks - Essay Example mics, is that one of the main functions, or the main function, of the central bank is to analyse the progress of the economy, and then to steer it with skilful judgment towards health and growth, by making decisions to change their base interest rate, with carefully chosen timing, amount and direction. One of these objectives is the control of money supply ((Black 2000, Visser 2005, Smullen & Hand 2005). Fiscal and monetary policies are among the most important public policies available in promoting growth and stability within the institutional framework of a free, competitive society (Black 2000, Visser 2005, Smullen & Hand 2005). By definition, fiscal policy is customarily defined as a manipulation of the government financial transactions, why on the other hand monetary policy is governmental control over the quantity of money or its terms of exchange (Winston, Holt &Hall 1960). In other words, these are tools being manipulated by the government to achieve desired economic and government objectives. One of these objectives is to control the supply of money. Monetary policy is referred to as a means by which the central bank tries to sway the economy to equilibrium by influencing the supply of money (Black 2000, Smullen & Hand 2005). This is achieved through four main approaches, which include: printing more money; direct controls over money held by the money sector; open market operations and influencing the interest rate. Both tight and easy monetary policies can also be identified. Like easy fiscal policy, easy monetary policy is one whereby the central bank embarks on a policy to increase the supply of money. On the other hand tight monetary policy is a policy whereby the central bank embarks on a policy to limit the circulation of money such as increasing interest rates. Fiscal policy refers to a situation whereby the government restores equilibrium in the economy by making changes to taxes or government expenditure on public goods and services (Smullen &

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Brand Development Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Brand Development Plan - Essay Example Table of Contents Introduction 5 Assumptions 5 Position Strategy 6 Target Market 7 Competitor Analysis 8 Point of Difference 10 Point of Parity 10 Building Brand Equity 11 Brand Awareness 11 Selection and Justification of Brand Elements 12 Brand Image 12 Communication Strategy 13 Measuring Brand Equity 13 Recommendation 14 Conclusion 14 References 15 Introduction Last Chance is a diversified corporation based in Australia that produces and sells products of different kinds. The company now does not have any product in the beverage industry. It has, therefore, decided to make an entry into the Australian market for soft drinks. The company intends to develop a new product for the beverage market. In order to launch the brand successfully in the market, the company has to conduct a research on the existing brands in the market and their performance. ...A proposal has been presented in this article on how the brand can effectively manage its functionalities so as to yield positive and e ncouraging outcomes. The paper provides insights into strategic positioning of the brand, the target customers, potential and incumbent firms, strategies of developing brand equity and building the brand’s communication strategy on the basis of evaluation of the various factors that have been identified to make probable effects on the brand’s image. Assumptions Last Chance is planning to penetrate into a new market. It is important to note that this market has a number of established players. Hence in order to develop its brand image and retain it in the minds of the customers for a long period of time, Dew Fresh has to make certain reasonable assumptions about the characteristics of the market in which it is venturing. The most important assumptions are mentioned below: 1. The prime customer group for Dew fresh is the young population belonging to the age group of 12 to 30 years. The people of this generation are young, active and enthusiastic. 2. Trends in the soft d rink industry show that the majority of customers belong to the above mentioned age group. They are open to new ideas and are willing to experiment with the products that they use in their daily lives. 3. There are various kinds of beverages in the Australian market. However, any kind of herbal energy drink has not been yet developed. Hence this new kind of soft drink is expected to gain a comfortably big customer base.

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Critiquing Marijuana Legislation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Critiquing Marijuana Legislation - Essay Example The author of the essay "Is there any Justice: Marijuana as Medicine - the Case for Legalization" begins with that the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes is viewed by many as one of the worst things that we could do. There are many reasons that people feel that marijuana should not be legalized for medical uses. Marijuana is an illegal substance and until that is changed; prescribing it is against the law. Dr. Jerome Kassirer wrote that, "Attorney General Janet Reno announced that physicians in any state who prescribe the drug could lose the privilege of writing prescriptions, be excluded from medicare and Medicaid reimbursements, and even be prosecuted for a federal crime". Government officials are not the only ones to object to the legalization of marijuana. Another objection to the legalization of marijuana is shown in "Marijuana for the Sick", where it is pointed out that many parents object to the legalization of marijuana for medical uses. Their objections come fr om a reasonable concern that there has been an increase in the use of marijuana by teenagers. Their concern is expanded since the marijuana of today is much more potent than the marijuana of a few decades ago. Another concern regarding the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes is that there is strong evidence that shows that regular use of marijuana for long periods of time could cause severe lung damage. If the use of marijuana could damage a patient's lungs, then the risk could outweigh the benefit. The strongest point that many make opposing the legalization of marijuana is that there just is no clear evidence that smoking marijuana can help an individual who is ill (Abrams, Child & Mitchell, 2005). History of Marijuana and its use in medical field The history of the beneficial use of marijuana is a long one. Marijuana is one of the oldest drugs known to man, the use of which has been documented as far back as 2700 B.C. in a Chinese manuscript (Bakalar & Grinspoon, 2007) Although no actual studies were performed at the time, the simple fact that marijuana had been used for such an extensive period of time, shows that it can be used as a beneficial substance in helping those who are ailing. There has been research done in more recent times on the effectiveness of marijuana. Many reports are in favor of utilizing medical marijuana. In 1839, a respected member of the Royal Academy of Science, Dr. W. B. O'Shaugnessy, was one of the first in the medical profession, who presented positive facts dealing with marijuana and medicine (Bakalar & Grinspoon, 2007). In one Journal of American Medical Association article, "Marijuana as Medicine, a Plea for Reconsideration" stated that from 1840 to 1900, more than one hundred articles by Ameri can and European medical journals were published that showed the therapeutic uses of marijuana. Now recall the first criteria for a drug to be considered a controlled

Monday, August 26, 2019

English project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

English project - Assignment Example I have in the process made meaningful progress and built long lasting relationships with people around me in my profession. I believe I have the right credentials in having experience, exposure, on-the-job expertise and technical knowledge to undertake the role of a System Analyst your organisation I have also had interactions with leading scholars and researchers in the field of technology and electronics to supplement my knowledge and have an ongoing association with the academia of my college. This puts me to an advantage to serve the role of junior research assistant and not only work on a continuous basis but keep learning, innovating and growing in due course of my career. My academic track record has been fair enough to qualify as a prerequisite for the rigour and consistency required in this role in an extremely niche, interesting and cutting edge area. I believe, I will be able to integrate all my learning and provide my services through my experiences, interactions and lear ning in a wholesome manner. Cover Letter: To, Recruiting Head, The Human Resource Department, Name of Company. Ref: Application for the post of System Analyst Dear Sir, This is requesting your attention on my interest for the role of a system analyst in your company. I would like to say that I have been a part of the Saudi Oger Company for the last 1 year 3 years and acquired knowledge and job experience. I have also trained professionals and mentored juniors in my area of specialised knowledge which is customer support and people management. To add to my credentials, I bear a consistent academic track record all through my academic career. I have specific interest in entering into the customer service departments in the capacity of a team Lead or a System Analyst and put to use the learning and experience I’ve had over the past 1 year. To add to my learning and professional exposure I also play soccer and believe in a healthy life style. I would like you to consider my appli cation and go through my profile and credentials attached. I look forward to a positive reply and anticipate the best. Regards, Thank You Letter: To, Recruiting Head, The Human Resource Department, Name of Company Ref: Application for the post of System Analyst Dear Sir, I write to you expressing my sincere appreciation for the time you’ve taken out in arranging our discussion. I have absorbed the moments well and enjoyed the discussion we had centred on the job opportunity as a System Analyst. The information shared by you was highly valuable and I appreciate the effort you put in sharing your valuable insights related to the Technology and customer service industry and my career path in general. I thank you once again for your valuable time and sincerely look forward to your reply. Anticipating the best. Regards, Resume Full Name Address Phone Number Email id Career Objectives: 1. To continuously learn and apply acquired skills in doing meaningful and productive work 2. To strike a balance between my professional and personal life 3. To learn and grow as an all round individual Academic Background Institute Year of Passing Aggregate Riyadh College of Technology 2009 3.4 GPA Technical Capabilities: Software Languages, Platforms, Subjects Professional Capabilities: People Management,

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Seminar Contribution in Economy In UK Coursework

Seminar Contribution in Economy In UK - Coursework Example According to the research findings, housing or the place where they would stay is a concern of all international students studying in the UK.   I have thought that since I will be staying in the UK for a long time of about three years, it would be better if I would first acquaint myself with the real estate market before buying anything. So I chose this the topic of real estate market not only because I will be needing the things that I will learn in it in buying my own apartment but also because I am genuinely interested with the subject. I have been reading a lot that the real estate crisis started the global financial crisis and I also would like to find it out myself by choosing this topic. So I did some research. I initially carried out my research through online articles since it is very convenient to do so. Of course, I am aware that relying merely upon online information especially in real estate is insufficient. I also checked some trade journals pertaining to real estate and found some useful information there. And to complete my research, I attended a seminar about real estate. The seminar was fruitful because I learned a lot of things about real estate. It also made me more confident in investing or buying my own apartment in the UK. In addition to learning, I also gained some wonderful friends during the seminar. It was a wonderful experience. I would like to take a seminar before buying anything because I would like to familiarize myself with the market first before buying anything. Real estate in the UK is not cheap so I have to know first before shelling out any money. Just like any customer, I would also like to get a good buy and a good value for money for the apartment that I will be buying. After all, I will be using the apartment also and will not just buy it only to sell later.

Saturday, August 24, 2019

International Students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International Students - Essay Example These students' first language is Arabic and they were selected in their respective states for tuition at this college. As getting into Salisbury college was not a decision made by these individuals themselves hence they did not follow the normal procedure of submitting an application, which would have involved contact with Student Services, which would have helped them arrange their visas, police registration and other details. Due to all this they have several issues that includes isolation as their level of English is poor, no arrangements made to have them interacting with the other students of the college. This also reflects from their behavior at the college. This research proposal will notify the appropriate way to handle these students and will help in finding out the main causes of their problems and how to solve them. It will also help in finding out what ethical issues are arising while implying the rules and regulations that are implied on any international student at Salisbury College. The research philosophy of this project would be making it more quantitative rather than being qualitative. There are several reasons for this philosophy. The major reason being that it would be difficult to communicate with the students as their English is weak i.e. communicating with them would be not very easy and a conflict might arise in what they are telling and what we interpret. Therefore, analysing numeric data and leaving non-quantitative data would be more meaningful and applicable for further and future research. However, the utilization of all numeric data would also have certain issues, hence qualitative data will also be analysed. Another reason for emphasizing on numeric data is because all qualitative data leads to difficulty in comprehension and analyses, and thus, the conclusions and outcome becomes highly judgmental in nature. The judgmental approach may reveal biased outcome based on the observer knowledge and expertise. Methodology The data collection methodology would comprise of both the secondary published data along with the primary data thus the research would be a comprehensive mixture of primary and secondary research resources. The secondary research would not just include the journal data but also the published books available on the topic as well as the articles and other research data that has been written across the world on the topic. Different methods used by different international colleges will also be studied in order to get the clearest picture of the scenario. The primary data would be collected by conducting interviews, making the students fill out simple close-ended questionnaires

Hotel Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Hotel Management - Assignment Example This team will include a broker, an appraiser, an accountant, an attorney, an architect, an engineer, a marketing and financial consultant. The broker will assist in the negotiation of the purchase. The appraiser will be a person who has either done appraisal of similar properties or has appraised properties in the hotel construction and leasing market. The accountant will be responsible for reviewing the records kept on the property to determine whether the funds are being applied appropriately, and whether the reporting systems and financial controls are adequate. The attorney will be a legal consultant specializing in hotel works and will assist in the formulation of acquisition strategies. The attorney will assist in the identification and coordination of the members of the acquisition team, and also offer advice on structure and terms of transactions. The attorney will also assist in issues of legal due diligence, including the significance of litigation and regulatory and title issues. In its popular usage the word conveyance signifies the document employed to carry out a purchase of land. But the term conveyance is of much wider import, and comprises the preparation and completion of all kinds of legal instruments. A well-known branch of the conveyancers business is the investigation of title. An important function in the case of purchases or mortgages of real estate. With personal estate (other than leasehold) he has perhaps not so much concern. Chattels are usually transferred by delivery, and stocks or shares by means of printed instruments which can be bought at a law-stationers. The common settlements and wills, however, deal wholly or mainly with personal property; and an interest in settled personality is frequently the subject of a mortgage. Of late years, also, there has been an enormous increase in the volume of conveyancing business in connection. with limited joint-stock companies. In the preparation of legal documents the practitioner is much assisted by the use of precedents. These are outlines or models of instruments of all kinds, exhibiting in. accepted legal phraseology their usual form and contents with additions and variations adapted to particular circumstances. Collections of them have been in use from early times, certainly since printing became common. The modern precedent is, upon the whole, concise and businesslike. The prolixity which formerly characterized most legal documents has largely disappeared, mainly through the operation of statutes which enable many clauses previously inserted at great length to be, in some cases, e.g. covenants for title, incorporated by the use of a few prescribed words, and in others safely omitted altogether. The Solicitors Remuneration Act 1881, has also assisted the process of curtailment, for there is now little or no connection between the length of a deed and the cost of its preparation. So long as the draftsm an adheres to recognized legal phraseology and to the well settled methods of carrying out legal operations, there is no reason why modern

Friday, August 23, 2019

Answer those question regarding to wall street journal Essay

Answer those question regarding to wall street journal - Essay Example Pass secretaries, appointed by the president, help, or advise him or her on how best to carries out official duties. Their mandates outlined in the constitution are to act in the presidents capacity within their areas of responsibility. As provided in the constitution, concerning the assignment of duty by the president, no decision shall require unprecedented authorization. Permanent campaign refers to reforms in American politics from old technique patronage of party machines system to contemporary use of the media and political consultants. The shift influences modern politics in a way that politicians continuously make rational and informed decision that promote public participation in strategy agenda. Permanent campaign theory emphasize on public approval of political leaders, contrary to party affiliations as a governance strategy. The background of a president greatly relates to level of executive performance during their term in office. Background influence emanated from judicial powers bestowed upon an American president to make autonomous decisions. In the first place, the president has executive privilege that allows him to withhold from revealing any communications made directly to him in exercising administrative duties. The second is state secrets privilege to withhold information in legal proceedings. The president’s background can cause him to use privileges to perform executive duties. The key point of multiple advocacies is influencing public opinion and resource allocation choices not only in political spheres but also in economic and social fields and organizations. It is a mixed form of system because it has many activities like media campaigns, public dialogue, ordering, and issuing

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Plastics Essay Example for Free

Plastics Essay From the mid-1980s onwards, plastic bags became common for carrying daily groceries from the store to vehicles and homes throughout the developed world. As plastic bags increasingly replaced paper bags, and as other plastic materials and products replaced glass, metal, stone, timber and other materials, a packaging materials war erupted, with plastic shopping bags at the center of highly publicized disputes. Although few peer-reviewed studies or government surveys have provided estimates for global plastic bag use, environmental activists estimate that between 500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags are used each year worldwide. Plastic has replaced the traditional material (paper/cloth etc) as packing and carry bags because of cost and convenience which is possibly a wrong choice of material for such use. Even though plastic bags can preserve food and can be used for growing vegetables in a controlled environment, their method of disposal has creates unprecedented pollution problem. Plastic has many more uses other than Plastic Bags and Packing material. It is used for manufacturing of protective covers and parts for many machines, which should be the preferred utility for plastic. More than a 100 million tones of plastic is produced world-wide each year. Though plastics have opened the way for a plethora of new inventions and devices it has also ended up clogging the drains and becoming a health hazard. Many countries, including India, are trying to increase the amount of plastic that is recycled. But commercial interests create hindrance for effective legislation to remove plastics from goods where they can threaten public health. Also there is a clear trend of shipping off the plastic waste of developed countries to under develop and developing countries. India imported 7,841. 8 metric tonnes of plastic waste from the US in the first half of 1994. India is the fourth highest Asian importer of plastic waste behind Hong Kong, Philippines,Indonesia. Environmental pollution caused by routinely used polythene packaging materials; it would be prudent, for the present, to use eco-friendly paper packaging. The manufacturers of plastic packaging like soft drink bottles/mineral water bottles etc must come forward and develop appropriate methods of disposal/own responsibility for disposal. Plastic bags were found to constitute a significant portion of the floating marine debris in the waters around southern Chile in a study conducted between 2002 and 2005. If washed out to sea, plastic bags can be carried long distances by ocean currents, and can strangle marine animals or, if ingested, cause them to starve to death. [8] Numerous deaths among animals such as sea turtles and dolphins have been attributed to the ingestion of plastic marine litter, which includes plastic bags. Littering is often a serious problem in developing countries, where trash collection infrastructure is less developed than in wealthier nations. The relatively limited adoption of modern biodegradable plastic bags means that many older landfills are filled with large, persistent deposits of non-degrading bags. It is, however, possible that in the future these deposits could be mined and reprocessed to replace dwindling raw material resources. In recent times due to widespread awareness drive by NGOS and government and to lesser extent by educational institutions has resulted in increasing the consciousness among few shopkeepers they have shifted back to the old system of wrapping up goods in paper bags or newspapers, Some people are slowly getting habituated to going to the market with cloth bags. Besides a few NGOs, even school students have come forward to take up a promotion campaign for the use of paper or cloth bags. Each year, as industry produces more and more nonessential products individually and excessively packaged, we throw away more and more trash. To a large extent, our garbage problem is a result of a corporate ethic that puts profits before people and the environment. Industry is pushing disposability because it pays. Plastic razors can only be used a few times before disposal, then more must be bought, making the plastic and razor industries rich and happy. Appliances designed to become obsolete guarantee youll have to buy new ones next year. Over 84 percent (by weight) of municipal solid waste could be reused, recycled or composted instead of being buried or burned. An exception is plastic, which comprises about 7 percent by weight or 20 percent by volume of municipal solid waste. Due to technical and financial limitations, less than ten percent of plastic is currently recycled. Furthermore, plastic recycling only defers the plastic disposal problem, since most plastic items can only be manufactured from virgin plastic. Recycled polystyrene foam (also known by the brand name Styrofoam) can be used to build marine docks but not to make a new polystyrene foam cup. New plastic will have to be produced from non-renewable oil stocks to make those cups, and eventually all the plastic will have to be disposed of. Last February 21, 2011, the province of Albay, spearheaded by Gov. Joey Sarte Salceda became the first in the Bicol region to ban the use of plastic bags. Provincial Ordinance No. 011 – 3, which is also known as the â€Å"Anti – Plastic† Ordinance of the Province of Albay, prohibits the use of plastic bags on dry goods and regulating the use on wet goods and prohibiting the use of Styrofoam and other synthetic materials harmful to the environment. The ordinance, signed into law by the governor and lauded by the members of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan is expected to eradicate the use of plastics bag by any means. As cited in Section 2 of the ordinance, the law is for the compliance of all business establishments, groceries, department stores, supermarkets, chain retailers and sari-sari stores in the province. Likewise, utilization of alternative packaging materials such as woven native bags (bayong), reusable cloth, shopping bags (katsa), paper bags and other similar materials is encouraged. It is also a known fact that many of those plastic bags that shop owners used to pack their merchandise often ended up in streets. The hazards plastic pose for the province are numerous. Albay being a favorite spot of natural disasters is at risk with the threats of excessive use of plastic products. Also, the province gets littered by plastic bag garbage presenting an ugly and unhygienic seen. The soil fertility deteriorates as plastic bags form part of manure remains on the soil for years. This new ordinance should be taken sincerely because this not only speaks for the lives at stake but for the environment of the next generations as well. Large food chains like McDonald’s, Jollibee and others should start to ban Styrofoam packages among their products. Large supermarkets should take the initiatives and act upon the given law and use alternatives to pack the purchase of their customers. They should also convince customers to bring their own reusable bags when they go shopping. Educational programs anchored to the ordinance should also be created to be able to grasp the students’ awareness about this law. They should be educated as early as in primary years that they may become fully aware of it. Massive campaigns like door-to-door information drive, barangay seminars and other promotions using quad media will be helpful in the realization of the law. Furthermore, environmental awareness of each individual should be encouraged as well.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Tourism as a Form of Neocolonialism

Tourism as a Form of Neocolonialism One of the most crucial areas within the literature is how power plays a part in the development of tourism. The specific balances of power determine how tourism can be developed in a region, and whether this is an indigenously motivated process or part of a neo-colonialist agenda. Butler and Hinch (2007:308-309) point out that power is usually not evenly distributed within most regions, and that political power and economic power determine how tourism develops. For example, in Australia the Aboriginal people are encouraged to engage in tourism development, yet they have little say in how this development occurs, and they have few means to access their specific cultural images or representations. Whilst this shows the inequality in power, the work does not show what the consequences of this are. It shows that non-indigenous people do not often have control over tourism development, but not what the agenda of the non-indigenous culture is. Also, this is a specific case involving indig enous and non-indigenous peoples in one country, rather than one region lacking control over their tourism strategies in light of influence from foreign organisations. However, this argument is a good starting point because it is from such economic and political inequalities that tourism as neo-colonialism occurs. From the 1960s onwards, tourism was seen as a great moderniser that could improve the prospects of developing countries. However, because these developing countries often did not have the means to develop this industry themselves, the resources and expertise of developed countries made it possible. This also meant the developed countries set the agenda for development, focusing on what would be a good model for a developed country in Europe, for instance. This, as stated by Hughes (in Lew, Hall and Williams, 2004:498-499) can be used as a way for developed countries to maintain control over developing nations and maintain the need for their dependency on developed countries. However, this does not adequately explain whether this type of neo-colonial development was short-lived, or whether it still continues today. Also, it looks at the pr oblem only from whether tourism itself in this form is useful for the destination region, rather than the intertwined relationship of all regions involved tourism activities. The point being missed here is that it is logical for many tourism initiatives to be influenced and determined by the needs of those outside the destination region. Whilst local tourism is one concern, it is a small concern when compared to the possible economic advantages of attracting tourists from developed countries. As Akama (in Hall and Tucker, 2004:140-141) points out, this is certainly the case in the development of safari tourism in Africa. It was initially created during the colonial era, and is still influenced by the power structures that existed at this time. This was certainly necessary in terms of the development of tourism as foreign investment was required. However, what is crucial here is that this neo-colonial influence means that whilst tourism meets the needs of those from developed countries, so the revenues generated often do not remain within the destination market, and so no development past this tourism is easily possible whilst there is such a reliance on t he developed countries. How this is interpreted really depends on the specific levels of empowerment being discussed. Church and Coles (2007:205) say there are three types of empowerment national, local and personal. If we are talking about national empowerment, then tourism does suffer from neo-colonial influence. This is because national economies in many developing countries remain dependent on specifically Western-centric forms of tourism and its development. However, the influence is perhaps less obvious at local and personal level. Tourism provides work and jobs, which can help individuals move away from previous levels of poverty. It can also revitalise an area and provide new facilities for locals. However, this is very much dependent on the type of tourism being developed and the specific economic level of locals versus the facilities being created. What is clear here is that even though tourism at a national level can be deemed neo-colonial in many areas, this does not mean the neo-colonial influ ence reaches down to create negative consequences at the local or personal levels. However, according to Richards and Hall (2003:27) it is likely that negative neo-colonial influence can extend to the local or personal level, particularly if the type of tourism pays little attention to traditional culture and its values. Also, where tourism occurs in only some regions within a country, it adversely affects other regions. As money is invested in one region, another region can suffer and gain more power. This leads to unequal development, and also could leave locals with a choice between living in an area where their traditional cultures are eroded but money is available, or living where traditions are maintained but investment is not forthcoming. However, this still does not examine whether current tourism practices are specifically neo-colonial. It only shows that in its most extreme form, neo-colonial tourism can have a negative impact at all levels and can maintain power inequalities, despite the seeming economic advantages on the surface. This idea of pervasive neo-colonialism in tourism is reinforced by Mowforth and Munt (2008:56-57). They explain that countries such as Fiji, despite political independence, remain neo-colonialist economies because their continued stability and prosperity depend upon tourism from Western countries. This means further development has to take into account these needs, and also helps to maintain previous colonial spatial structures because they are best suited for the needs of the market that remains so important to the country. Whilst this certainly seems to the consensus when it comes to many developing countries that depend on tourism, the focus is perhaps too much just on the economic impacts rather than the potential impacts that neo-colonialism through tourism could have on race, culture and class. For example, Crick (1994:65) points out a study by Mendis (1981) that suggests the nature of tourism in Sri Lanka has led to a culture of servility that risks creating a generation of butlers. This wipes away cultural traditions and places racial inequalities between the tourists who are served and the locals who serve them. In order to continue bringing in tourists, these countries have to hide other inequalities and poverty, thereby potentially making these problems worse down the line and tacitly helping to maintain the stereotypes and inequalities between developed countries and the destination region. This again shows that neo-colonial tourism has, at least in the past and possibly still now, occurred. However, what is the overall level of tourism as neo-colonialism, and are there different approaches to tourism than the neo-colonialist approach? One area that could be described as a response or antidote to neo-colonial tourism is the increasing growth of the independent traveller. These are people who do not tend to visit regular tourist destinations, and do not seek out established tourist structures. These individuals believe they are not contributing to the inequalities that are seen through major tourist development, but in fact such inequalities are often inescapable. As tourists move away from one tourist area to independently travel, new lines of tourism are inevitably formed. Also, by attempting to control or decide exposure to tourist facilities, the traveller is inadvertently contributing to decisions about the development of certain areas. For example, some boatmen and guides in India have licenses that restrict the areas they can go with tourists. This means tourists have greater access and mobility within the destination environment than the local guides another example of inequality, even when it is merely an effort to potentially allow a less neo-colonial tourist experience. Furthermore, it is this idea of First World tourist determining the agenda to the Third World that contributes to inequalities, no matter the form of tourism being developed (Lozanski, 2008:31-33). This is perhaps the biggest problem -that the entire debate is only focused on the flow of mobility, education, economics and decision-making in one direction. For example, the tourist situation in Jamaica is often looked at from the negative neo-colonial standpoint, where large foreign hotel chains such as RIU Hotels mean that much of the money generated through tourism leaves Jamaica and ends up back in Western countries (Dei, 2006: 200). Even though this is a valid criticism, it only looks at the situation from one side. It does not take into account the desires and needs of the Jamaican people, and whether or not having these hotels that remove revenue from the economy is any worse than having no industry at all. It is not specifically that revenue is removed, but how this decision is made. If it is developed as part of an indigenously-led tourism model, then it cannot be seen to be totally negative. This is not studied enough in the literature, and the literature does not look a t the underlying decision-making processes of countries in terms of tourism development. For example, it should not be assumed that just because an area is developed to meet tourists needs and some elements of traditional culture removed that this is going to have a negative impact on the local population or that it is unwanted. This is only our perception from the Western-centric perspective that it is unwanted. Maintenance of traditional culture is not always desired by locals, and in fact its maintenance may be antithetical to other types of growth. For example, in Beijing, China, many of the traditional hutong streets and residences are being replaced with newer high-rise buildings and commercial buildings. Whilst some bemoan the loss of this culture, it can provide better accommodation and facilities to locals who lived in these old areas, and can provide much-needed jobs and activities for a growing middle class (Kuhn, 2006). Not all tourism is controlled by international corporations and their influence over the destination region. Local and nationally-controlled tourism initiatives perform differently to neo-colonial tourism, and can potentially empower and help a nation to grow. This is of course shown in developed countries most readily, where locally controlled tourism helps preserve aspects of culture that are deemed locally important, as well as helping regions to develop and move closer together. However, it is less obvious and prevalent in developing countries. More research is required here, outside of the few specific examples that are generally cited to show how local tourism initiatives in developing countries are providing an alternative to the neo-colonial model (Theobald, 1998:69). The issue is that any adverse effect from tourism or any specifically capitalist market-driven decision in tourism is often seen as neo-colonialism in practice, but in fact the deeper roots of the decision need to be looked at rather than merely the outcomes. Local tourism initiatives may take advantage of capitalist structures for tourism development and specifically cater development to the needs of those from developed countries as well as their own people. It is therefore important to focus on the specific underlying influence of certain power structures on tourist decisions around the world, and this will give a clearer picture as to the true prevalence of neo-colonialism within tourism (Sharma, 2004:66-67). It must not be seen that changes within a country due to tourism are specifically because of neo-colonialism, or that tourism is merely the yoke that replaces colonialism in many countries. Whilst this is certainly true is some areas, it is also true that change occurs naturally and that tourism, whether influenced by foreign corporations or not, is a lucrative business (Mowforth and Munt, 2008:49). However, the real test for neo-colonial influence is whether these changes from tourism and the way tourism has developed is down to local needs and wishes, or whether it is purely created by undue influence from large foreign corporations. It could well be argued though that there is a thin line between the inequalities that inevitably emerge from a neo-liberal market due to the economic and political inequalities between the developing and developed world and the direct influence of neo-colonialism on tourism. Both can lead to negative consequences for developing countries, even though the decision-making processes might be quite different (Jamal and Robinson, 2009:154-155). In conclusion, the literature review shows that tourism has and continues to be a neo-colonial activity in at least some areas of the world, and that this has likely led to negative effects for developing countries. However, there are certainly gaps in the literature in terms of how much of tourism is based on neo-colonial ideals, and no real mention of tourism in developed countries, which contributes a lot to tourism and obviously is generally not seen as neo-colonial in nature. However, even if merely focusing on developing countries, there is a lack of information about the root causes for decisions in these areas, and too much of a focus on negative outcomes that perhaps have more to do with general economic inequalities rather than the prevalence of neo-colonialism in tourism. The next section will attempt to look at ways in which theoretical frameworks and research methods can be used to fill the gaps in this research and come to a conclusion about the extent to which tourism is a neo-colonial activity. Methodology For this paper, primary research was initially considered as a method, but was dismissed because of the difficulty of access to potential participants. Much of the focus of tourism as neo-colonialism has to be on developing countries, which immediately makes data collection more difficult. Also, in light of potential conflicts of interest between workers within tourism industries in these developing countries and those that employ them makes primary research not viable for this specific topic. Therefore, secondary research is the most logical design for this paper. This also follows on from the findings of the literature review, which identified a number of gaps in the research as well as areas of research that can be examined in greater detail using various theoretical frameworks. This methodology section will outline the various secondary research methods that will be used, how these fit in with the literature review findings and what they can bring to the discussion on the prevalence of tourism as a neo-colonial activity. The first important thing to remember is to avoid misreading the extent of neo-colonialism by being stuck within the perspective of neo-colonialism as the entire framework for the research. The study must not merely be conducted from the viewpoint of the First World, and must look at how both roots of decision-making within tourism and outcomes are perceived from the perspective of developing countries. We must also look at the way in which those tourists from developing countries flow into other developing countries and developed countries, as this will help us to understand the bigger picture when it comes to tourism and its activities. In order to avoid making snap judgements about the nature of tourism, the scope of analysis needs to be broadened and a multi-perspective approach adopted. This is of course challenging, and it is difficult to avoid Western-centric thinking at times. However, it is only by using this method that the true motivations for tourism activity around the w orld can be understood. As Ateljevic, Pritchard and Morgan (2007:24-26) explain, this is known as de-centrising the tourism universe. This is important as a methodological basis for the further research, because the literature review identifies the fact that many sources focus only on the problem from a Western perspective, particularly when espousing the problems of neo-colonialism. For example, many of the definitions or examples of neo-colonialism focus on the way in which Western countries such as the US took advantage of countries such as Cuba as their playground, and that this was detrimental to the country. This does not take into account the perspective of Cuba, and also the other political aspects that led to negative outcomes in the region reasons that are far wider than merely the Western influence on the tourism industry (Jafari, 2003:122). However, taking a broader approach does not mean ignoring specific case studies and examples that could shed light on the nature of tourism in developing countries, particularly as it stands now. Whilst it should be left to those in these countries to decide what aspects of their culture are authentic or changeable, it can clearly be seen in areas such as the Caribbean that, economically at least, tourism is still dominated by the predominantly white and Western corporate influence. For example, most hotel managers in the region are still expatriates, with only lower positions being held by locals. This may not be a deliberate example of neo-colonialism as it may genuinely be that this is the best way to make the business successful. However, it is surely an area that needs exploring and greater understanding given to how these unequal structures arise and if they are indeed only a small problem or part of a larger problem of Western dominance over these industries (Bennett, 2005:15 -17). This is why case study methodology is important in this paper. There are many existing case studies already evident, but as mentioned many of them do not take forward this multi-perspective approach to understand the decision-making within tourism and how this reduces or increases potential inequalities, and whether or not these inequalities are directly part of neo-colonial practice or for other reasons. Tourism is a process, which unless there is an obviously dominant hegemony at work, requires a look at the complex flow of global ideas, people and capital. As global trends change, so case studies must look at the current situation and not merely stick to preconceived notions of inequality (Salazar, in Richards and Munsters, 2010:188). The case study approach can be an initial entry into understanding some specific examples of tourism activity in various countries, and then different trends or patterns can be identified in order to start forming a more general and overall understanding of the pervasiveness of neo-colonialism within tourism. The case study is useful here as well because it is less important to understand the outcomes of decision-making, because these can be negative or positive no matter the influence. Instead, it is important, through a multi-perspective approach, to understand the root decision-making within tourism around the world, and this will determine whether tourism is merely serving a neo-colonial agenda or whether it is actually a complex global process that is influenced by foreign and local actors in different ways, leading to different outcomes in different areas rather a definite neo-colonial dominance (Beeton, in Ritchie, Burns and Palmer, 2005:37-40). There are many good examples of potential case studies that can be analysed and used to build up this wider picture that do not necessarily just fit into the traditional model of viewing a tourist area from the position of Western dominance and developing world dependency. For example, Wearing and McDonald (2002:191) look at the role that intermediaries play in isolated rural communities in Papua New Guinea. This is not focusing on the outcomes of tourism, but looking at how different groups interact, and that it is possible through intermediaries for the tourist to be an equal part of a system rather than at its centre. This would suggest the potential for a power shift away from neo-colonialism, even if inequalities and certain negative outcomes may continue and wider issues of economic neo-colonialism continue. This means that tourism does not have to be specifically neo-colonial in nature, even if other inequalities persist for now. Another good example is a study by Hasty (2002:47) that looks at tourism across Africa and the promotion of Pan-Africanism. This study focuses on tourism in Ghana that is controlled by those within the country and developed to promote more unity within Africa. The problem here is that various different agendas mean that tourist events to promote Pan-Africanism remove discussion of potential differences and contradictions. In this sense it is not merely a problem of neo-colonialism, but wider concerns between a variety of actors and the careful balancing act between culture, politics and economic interests. Finally, for tourism as neo-colonial activity and its extent to be understood, current research should be understood in light of the global post-colonial landscape. This fits in with the multi-perspective approach previously mentioned, as it goes beyond the initial attempts to correct neo-colonialism that themselves could lead to colonial inequalities. For example, appealing to sustainable tourism as a means to combat neo-colonialism could exacerbate the problem because the agenda and demands for sustainability would be set by the developed countries once again, and did not necessarily take into account the needs to the destination regions. The post-colonial framework goes beyond this to look at the situation from all perspectives rather than the previous ideal of trying to solve the inequalities created from neo-colonialism and colonialism before this (Carrigan, 2010:202-203). For example, if we look at the case of tourism in the West Indies in a post-colonial sense, we can see many of the previous inequalities that may have been associated with neo-colonialism. These inequalities could be viewed as part of neo-colonialism if viewed from one perspective or not adequately analysed. Rich West Indian minority elites have taken charge of some parts of the tourism industry, and are exhibiting similar dominance and influence to previous neo-colonial influence. However, as the inequalities in this sense shift and neo-colonialism becomes less of an issue, the negative effects on many of the local population remain. Further, these new leaders within the market can move into the international market, and therefore a greater interactive phase of tourism begins where flows of money and influence come from developing countries as well as to developing countries (Laws, Faulkner and Moscado, 1998:231-232). It is also likely that the definition of neo-colonialism will need to alter as globalisation continues and companies become more global in their outreach and ideals. Multinationals may then be as entwined in the destination region as their previous region of origin, or the multinational may indeed originate in the destination region. This alters how these companies are able to influence tourism, and also how they positively or negatively influence tourism. What was previously a one-way relationship will develop into a complex dialogue between consumers, employees, companies and both local and national governments to determine how tourism develops and where its interests lie (Page and Connell, 2006:467). It may be that neo-colonialism only exists in its most extreme form in specific types of tourism that are already of an exploitative nature, such as sex tourism. These forms of tourism are unequal because of the very nature of the activity, but these forms of tourism are slowly being removed and reduced in the post-colonial world as all actors within the tourist industry begin to deem them unacceptable. However, it is hard to completely remove these problems due to greater issues of economic inequality outside of the tourist industry (Bauer and Holowinska, 2009:6). Overall, the approach to the research needs to be multi-perspective, focused on a wide variety of case studies in order to build up a picture of the current status of tourism. Most importantly, it needs to be set within the post-colonial context and the questions to be answered determined by the subjects rather than the researcher. This will give a view of tourism as neo-colonialism that is not already mired in neo-colonialist thought (Belsky, in Phillimore and Goodson, 2004:286). The discussion section of the dissertation will use these methods to analyse the topic, and then the following conclusion section will summarise these findings and further recommendations for research. Conclusion In conclusion, the main findings in this paper are: There is still a clear economic imbalance between the First World and Third World, which is caused by a variety of factors including First World hegemony and the effects of colonialism and neo-colonialism. The Western, developed nations still dominate the tourist market, mainly due to their economic superiority. Cultural changes are less of an issue than they were during the colonial era, but economic dominance can still undermine destination cultures. Developing countries still need the money in the form of investment to build up tourist markets, and this allows Western countries to dictate terms, including the flow of money back to developed countries through multinational companies and the use of expatriate staff over local staff. This is not simply a matter for tourism however, and is a problem in almost all economic sectors. In tourism the problem is no worse, and in fact in many ways it is more of a closed system. The benefits of tourism often go to Western countries, but in general these are the countries that fuel demand. Sometimes this neo-colonialism shows itself within the tourist industry, leading to inequalities and negative outcomes for developing countries. Not all negative outcomes within tourism are due to neo-colonialist factors, and not all neo-colonialist factors within tourism lead to negative outcomes, particularly when looked upon from national, local and personal levels. Tourism as neo-colonialism does keep developing countries dependent on developed countries, particularly if tourism is a large part of their GDP. However, not all factors should be considered negative, because it is not just tourism that keeps developing countries dependent on developed countries. Overall economic and political inequalities also contribute, as do internal problems within developing countries such as poor management, lack of resources, wars and political instabilities. Tourism, even when dominated by foreign companies, does provide much-needed jobs that may not otherwise be available, and can help to maintain political stability in countries because of the needed revenues from tourism. Also, not all tourism that is locally influenced is positive. It can still be exploitative between different regions or ethnic groups, and can do as much damage to culture and the environment as neo-colonial tourism. Much of the research is too focused on outcomes and the potential ways to solve neo-colonialist problems within tourism. Outcomes are not the main focus here. The focus should be on the initial decision-making process, because this is where influence and inequalities are most keenly felt. Currently, the research that condemns neo-colonialism only further imbeds it because it is too Western-centric and does not understand the differences between what might reverse foreign influence and what is actually wanted and accepted by the destination countries. Instead, a post-colonial, multi-perspective approach shows that whilst neo-colonialism in tourism still persists, global flows of money and information are changing, and with it so is tourism. The world has changed in the last fifteen years or more with the rapid development of technology and the internet. This has globalised society to some extent and has allowed information flows to go in different directions for the first time. For instance, the Chinese are a growing influence on world tourism, both in terms of China as a destination and its growing wealthy class as tourists travelling around the world. These sorts of developments therefore need to be looked at from different perspectives, and not just from the previously established perspective of tourism as a neo-colonialist activity. Whilst economic inequalities allow developed-country dominance to continue, this does not mean that tourism flows are not altering or that First-World businesses that are involved in other countries are unwelcome or having a negative impact. Tourism, whilst still showing the inequalities within the rest of society, is slowing beginning to move away from neo-colonial practices. Global inequalities will continue, but tourism is seeing some change. As citizens from developed countries become more aware of other cultures their demands for tourism change. Also, as developing countries continue to change and develop and their cultures alter, their own capabilities and needs change. The flow of money and information is no longer one-way, and this means that not only will developing countries have a say in their own tourism markets, but they will become the future patrons of other tourist markets in both developed and developing countries. This will all move tourism further away from being a solely neo-colonial practice. In relation to conclusion 3, further research should move away from outcomes-based examinations of the tourist industry when looking at influences on tourism, and instead focus on decision-based analyses. It is in the area of decision-making that influence and inequalities most likely come out. If negative or positive outcomes arise from these decisions is certainly important, but if the decision is not heavily influenced by multinational corporations under the guise of neo-colonialism, then regardless of the outcomes these tourist activities cannot be said to be neo-colonialist. Furthermore, analyses that focus on the roots of decision-making will give a better understanding of how tourist industries develop and change over time in the modern global society. Based upon conclusion 4, further research should move away from the neo-colonial base as the start for analysis. Globalisation and the rise of larger developing countries such as China have created a truly post-colonial landscape where traditional measures of colonialism and neo-colonialism are less useful. Whilst rich-poor and 1st/3rd world inequalities still predominate, flows of tourism, influence and money are changing and becoming more complex. Merely trying to solve the previous neo-colonialist bias of tourism is not enough, because any analysis that starts on this basis will not take into account the status of the modern global society and the inevitable cultural changes in developing countries. It is important to conduct research from many perspectives, rather than the futile effort of trying to solve neo-colonialism by starting from a Western-centric perspective that is decidedly neo-colonialist in nature because it does not take into account the actual views and needs of th ose who supposedly need saving from the dominance of Western society. We should not assume that they need saving, or that indeed if they do that we can be the ones to bring about this salvation. Finally, based on conclusion 5, it is important for further research to conduct more in-depth studies of the global tourist market, and the flows of culture, influence and money that occur. Taking one country at a time is a good start to understand the basics of these flows, but it requires a global study, looking at the ways in which different actors interact with each other, in order to truly understand how the power balance currently sits and where it is likely to move towards in the coming decades.